Cancer Information

What Are Nasal Cavity and Paranasal Sinus Cancers?

The Nasal Cavity

The nose opens into the nasal passageway, or cavity. This cavity runs along the top of the palate (the roof of the mouth, the shelf that separates your nose from your mouth) and turns downward to join the passage from the mouth to the throat.

The Paranasal Sinuses

The term paranasal means "around or near the nose." Sinuses are cavities or small tunnels. The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses help filter, warm, and humidify the air you breathe. They also give your voice resonance, lighten the weight of the skull, and provide a bony framework for the face and eyes.

The nasal cavity opens into a network of paired sinuses: maxillary sinuses are in the cheek area, below the eyes, and on either side of the nose.

Frontal sinuses are above the inner eye and eyebrow area.

Sphenoid sinuses are situated deep behind the nose, between the eyes.
Ethmoid sinuses are made up of multiple sieve-like sinuses formed of thin bone and mucous tissues. They are located above the nose, between the eyes.

Normally, these sinuses are filled with air. When you have a cold or sinus infection they can fill with mucus and pus, often becoming obstructed, and causing discomfort.

The nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses are lined by a layer of mucous producing tissue called mucosa. The mucosa has multiple types of cells including:

Squamous epithelial cells which are lining cells and form the majority of the mucosa,

Glandular cells such as minor salivary gland cells, which produce mucus and other fluids,

Nerve cells which are responsible for sensation and the sense of smell in the nose

Infection-fighting cells which are part of the immune system, blood vessel cells, and other supporting cells.
All of the cells that make up the mucosa can become cancerous and each type behaves or grows differently. The types of tumors formed when these cell types become cancerous include:

Squamous cell carcinoma (cancer of squamous cells of the nasal cavity and sinus lining layer) is the most common type of cancer in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. It makes up about 60%-70% of cancers of these areas.

Papillomas (wart-like growths that are not cancer, but can be destructive) have a small chance of developing into squamous cell carcinoma. A subtype called inverting (sunken) papilloma, has a tendency to recur or come back. Inverting papilloma is often called a benign tumor, but can invade surrounding tissue and act like a malignant tumor. It needs to be treated like a cancer in many cases.

Adenocarcinomas and mucoepidermoid cancers (cancers arising from gland cells) are the next most frequent type, making up about 10%-20%.

Malignant lymphomas (cancer arising from lymph or immune system cells) make up about 5% of cancers of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses.

Malignant melanoma (cancer of pigment or skin color containing cells) is an aggressive cancer that comprises about 3% of these tumors.

Esthesioneuroblastomas come from the olfactory nerves (nerves which govern the sense of smell). They are sometimes mistaken for undifferentiated carcinoma (another rapidly growing cancer) or lymphoma. These cancers usually occur on the roof of the nasal cavity and involve a structure called the cribriform plate, which is a bone deep in the skull, between the eyes, and above the ethmoid sinuses.

Tumors of muscle, bone, cartilage, and fibrous cells may also occur.

Midline granuloma is a group of several unrelated conditions, which are not cancer, but can destroy normal tissues of the nose, sinuses and nearby tissues. Some cases are due to immune system problems and many others are similar to lymphomas. Because these conditions cause similar symptoms, they were grouped together before sophisticated medical tests to distinguish them were available. Midline granuloma will not be discussed in this document.

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:54 PM 5 comments

What Is Penile Cancer?

Each of the tissues in the penis contains several types of cells. Different types of penile cancer (cancer of the penis) can develop in each kind of cell. The differences are important because they determine the seriousness of the cancer and the type of treatment needed.

Epidermoid carcinoma: Penile cancer develops in the skin of the penis. About 95% of penile cancers develop from flat skin cells called squamous cells. Penile tumors tend to grow slowly. If they are found at an early stage, these tumors can usually be cured. Squamous cell penile cancers can develop anywhere on the penis but most develop on the foreskin (in men who have not been circumcised) or on the glans.

Verrucous carcinoma is an uncommon form of squamous cell cancer that can occur on the male or female genitals, skin, mouth, larynx, and anus. Verrucous carcinoma of the genitals is sometimes also called a Buschke-Lowenstein tumor. It looks a lot like a benign (noncancerous) genital wart (see the section "Benign and Precancerous Conditions" for more information). These low-grade cancers can spread deeply into surrounding tissue, but they rarely spread to other parts of the body.

Adenocarcinoma, a very rare type of penile cancer, can develop from sweat glands in the skin of the penis. Paget disease of the penis is a condition in which adenocarcinoma cells are found in the penile skin. The cancer cells at first spread within the skin, but they may eventually invade underneath the skin and spread to lymph nodes. Paget disease can affect skin anywhere in the body but most often affects skin of the perianal area (tissues of or around the anus), vulva, and the breasts. (This condition should not be confused with Paget disease of the bone, an entirely different disease also named after Dr. James Paget.)

The earliest stage of squamous cell cancer of the penis (or any other organ) is called squamous cell carcinoma in situ (CIS). Penile CIS is contained entirely within the skin of the penis and has not yet spread to deeper tissues of the penis. Depending on the exact location of a CIS of the penis, doctors may give additional names to the disease. CIS of the glans is sometimes called erythroplasia of Queyrat. The same condition when found on the shaft of the penis (or skin of other parts of the body) is called Bowen disease.

Melanomas: About 2% of penile cancers develop from pigment-producing skin cells called melanocytes. Cancers of these cells are called melanoma. These cancers are more dangerous because they grow and spread more rapidly. Melanomas usually develop from sun-exposed areas of skin. Although sun exposure is an important risk factor for melanoma, a few of these cancers can develop on the penis or other areas not likely to become sunburned.

Basal cell penile cancer: Basal cell cancers represent less than 2% of penile cancers. They are slow-growing tumors that rarely spread to other parts of the body.

Sarcomas: The remaining 1% of penile cancers are sarcomas, cancers that develop from the blood vessels, smooth muscle, and other connective tissue cells of the penis.

Benign and Precancerous Conditions

Sometimes abnormal benign (not cancerous) growths develop on the penis. Some of these benign growths may eventually evolve into invasive cancer if they are not treated. These precancerous conditions can resemble warts or irritated patches of skin. Like penile cancer, they usually develop on the glans or on the foreskin, but they can also occur along the shaft of the penis.

Condylomas are wart-like growths that resemble tiny cauliflowers. Some are so small that they are apparent only when the skin is viewed under a magnifying lens. Others may be as large as an inch or more in diameter.

Squamous cell cancer of the penis usually forms slowly over many years, and it is usually preceded by precancerous changes that may last for several years. The medical term for this precancerous condition is penile intraepithelial neoplasia, or dysplasia. "Intraepithelial" means that the precancerous cells are confined to the epithelium (surface layer of the penile skin).

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:48 PM 2 comments

Heart cancer: Is there such a thing?

Q: Can you get cancer in your heart?

A: Yes. However, heart cancer is extremely rare. The vast majority of heart tumors are noncancerous (benign). A 20-year review of 12,487 consecutive autopsies in Hong Kong identified only seven cases of cardiac tumor — an incidence of less than 0.1 percent — most of which were benign. Benign tumors of the heart include myxomas, fibromas, rhabdomyomas and hamartomas. Cancerous (malignant) tumors of the heart are most often sarcomas. Occasionally, cancer can spread to the heart, such as from lymphomas that originate in the structures of the chest near the heart. Other cancers that can spread to the heart include melanomas and sarcomas. Treatment of heart tumors is surgical removal.

Cancer can affect the heart in other ways, such as causing damage to the heart valves (marantic endocarditis) or stiffening of the heart muscle (cardiac fibrosis). Cancer treatments can also affect the heart. Certain chemotherapy drugs — such as anthracyclines, high-dose cytoxan, 5-FU, taxanes, herceptin and IL-2 — can damage the heart. Radiation therapy directed at or near the heart can cause damage to the heart muscle and increase the risk of coronary artery disease later in life.

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:45 PM 0 comments

Colorectal Cancer

What is colon cancer?

Colon cancer is malignant tissue that grows in the wall of the colon. The majority of tumors begin when normal tissue in the colon wall forms an adenomatous polyp, or pre-cancerous growth projecting from the colon wall. As this polyp grows larger, the tumor is formed. This process can take many years, which allows time for early detection with screening tests.

Am I at Risk for Colon Cancer?

Colon cancer is the third most common type of cancer, in both males and females, in the Western world. The incidence is highest in African Americans, who are also more likely to die of the disease. Certain factors put people at higher risk, but with about 105,000 new cases each year in the United States, we must all be aware of this deadly disease. The risk of colon cancer rises substantially after age 50, but every year there are numerous cases reported in younger people. Individuals with a personal or family history of colon cancer, polyps, or inherited colon cancer syndromes (i.e., FAP and HNPCC), as well as patients with ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease, are all at higher risk and may require screening at an earlier age than the general population. A person with one first degree relative (parent, sibling or child) with colon cancer is 2 to 3 times as likely to develop the cancer as someone who does not have an affected relative.

However, this does not mean that people without a family history are not at risk. In fact, about 80% of new colon cancer cases are diagnosed in people who would not be identified as "high risk". Studies of colon cancer cases found that lifestyle factors may put a person at higher risk. These factors include: a diet high in fat and red meat but low in fruits and vegetables, high caloric intake, low levels of physical activity, and obesity. In addition, smoking and excessive alcohol intake may play a role in colon cancer development. Despite avoiding all of these factors, some people will still develop colon cancer. With screening and early detection, these patients can be effectively treated in a majority of the cases.

How Can I Prevent Colon Cancer?

Given the things that put a person at higher risk, a low-fat diet high in fruits and vegetables and low in red meat, together with regular exercise and maintaining a healthy body weight, may aide in prevention. The term chemoprevention can be defined as 'the use of a chemical compound to prevent, inhibit, or reverse the formation of the cancer'. There are ongoing studies looking at vitamins A, E, D, and C, folic acid, calcium, selenium, aspirin, cox-2 inhibitors, statin medications (traditionally used to lower cholesterol) and hormone replacement therapy as potential chemopreventive agents that may prevent or reverse the formation of polyps and colon cancer. Thus far, these studies have been inconclusive, so no specific recommendations can be made for the general population. Some of these agents continue to be evaluated in clinical trials.

posted by Jason Nert @ 3:47 PM 1 comments

Myths About Breast Cancer

What is your risk of breast cancer? Which breast cancer treatment is right for you? What about antiperspirants and breast cancer?

What you don't know CAN hurt you. Misinformation can keep you from recognizing and minimizing your own risk of breast cancer or getting the very best possible care. Arm yourself with the facts.

Here are ten common myths about breast cancer, followed by myths about specific types of breast cancer treatment.

Breast cancer only affects older women.
No.

While it's true that the risk of breast cancer increases as we grow older, breast cancer can occur at any age. From birth to age 39, one woman in 231 will get breast cancer (<0.5% risk); from age 40–59, the chance is one in 25 (4% risk); from age 60–79, the chance is one in 15 (nearly 7%). Assuming you live to age 90, the chance of getting breast cancer over the course of an entire lifetime is one in 7, with an overall lifetime risk of 14.3%.

If you have a risk factor for breast cancer, you're likely to get the disease.
No.

Getting breast cancer is not a certainty, even if you have one of the stronger risk factors, like a breast cancer gene abnormality. Of women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 inherited genetic abnormality, 40–80% will develop breast cancer over their lifetime; 20–60% won't. All other risk factors are associated with a much lower probability of being diagnosed with breast cancer.

If breast cancer doesn't run in your family, you won't get it.
No.

Every woman has some risk of breast cancer. About 80% of women who get breast cancer have no known family history of the disease. Increasing age – just the wear and tear of living – is the biggest single risk factor for breast cancer. For those women who do have a family history of breast cancer, your risk may be elevated a little, a lot, or not at all. If you are concerned, discuss your family history with your physician or a genetic counselor. You may be worrying needlessly.

Only your mother's family history of breast cancer can affect your risk.
No.

A history of breast cancer in your mother's OR your father's family will influence your risk equally. That's because half of your genes come from your mother, half from your father. But a man with a breast cancer gene abnormality is less likely to develop breast cancer than a woman with a similar gene. So, if you want to learn more about your father's family history, you have to look mainly at the women on your father's side, not just the men.

Using antiperspirants causes breast cancer.
No.

There is no evidence that the active ingredient in antiperspirants, or reducing perspiration from the underarm area, influences breast cancer risk. The supposed link between breast cancer and antiperspirants is based on misinformation about anatomy and a misunderstanding of breast cancer.

Birth control pills cause breast cancer.
No.

Modern day birth control pills contain a low dose of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. They have not been associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. The higher-dose contraceptive pills used in the past were associated with a small increased risk, in only a few studies. Today's birth control pills can provide some protection against ovarian cancer.

Eating high-fat foods causes breast cancer.
No.

Several large studies have not been able to demonstrate a clear connection between eating high-fat foods and a higher risk of breast cancer. Ongoing studies are attempting to clarify this issue further. We can say that avoidance of high-fat foods is a healthy choice for other reasons: to lower the "bad" cholesterol (low-density lipoproteins), increase the "good" cholesterol (high-density lipoproteins); to make more room your diet for healthier foods, and to help you control your weight. Excess body weight, IS a risk factor for breast cancer, because the extra fat increases the production of estrogen outside the ovaries and adds to the overall level of estrogen in the body. If you are already overweight, or have a tendency to gain weight easily, avoiding high-fat foods is a good idea.

A monthly breast self-exam is the best way to diagnose breast cancer.
No.

High quality, film-screen mammography is the most reliable way to find breast cancer as early as possible, when it is most curable. By the time a breast cancer can be felt, it is usually bigger than the average size of a cancer first found on mammography. Breast examination by you or your healthcare provider is still very important. About 25% of breast cancers are found only on breast examination (not on the mammogram), about 35% are found on mammography alone, and 40% are found by both physical exam and mammography. Keep both bases covered.

I'm at high risk for breast cancer and there's nothing I can do about it.
No.

There are several effective ways to reduce—but not eliminate—the risk of breast cancer in women at high risk. Options include lifestyle changes (minimize alcohol consumption, stop smoking, exercise regularly), medication (tamoxifen, also called Nolvadex); and in cases of very high risk, surgery may be offered (prophylactic mastectomies, and for some women, prophylactic ovary removal). Be sure that you have consulted with a physician or genetic counselor before you make assumptions about your level of risk.

A breast cancer diagnosis is an automatic death sentence.
No.

Fully 80% of women diagnosed with breast cancer have no signs of metastases (no cancer has spread beyond the breast and nearby lymph nodes). Furthermore, 80% of these women live at least five years, most longer, and many live much longer. Even women with signs of cancer metastases can live a long time. Plus promising treatment breakthroughs are becoming available each day.

posted by Jason Nert @ 3:44 PM 1 comments

Am I at risk for breast cancer?

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy affecting women in North America and Europe. Every woman is at risk for breast cancer. Close to 200,000 cases of breast cancer were diagnosed in the United States in 2001. Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in American women behind lung cancer. The lifetime risk of any particular woman getting breast cancer is about 1 in 8 although the lifetime risk of dying from breast cancer is much lower at 1 in 28.

Risk factors for breast cancer can be divided into those that you cannot change and those that you can change. Some factors that increase your risk of breast cancer that you cannot alter include being a woman, getting older, having a family history (having a mother, sister, or daughter with breast cancer doubles your risk), having a previous history of breast cancer, having had radiation therapy to the chest region, being Caucasian, getting your periods young (before 12 years old), having your menopause late (after 50 years old), never having children or having them when you are older than 30, and having a genetic mutation that increases your risk. Genetic mutations for breast cancer have become a hot topic of research lately. Between 3% to 10% of breast cancers may be related to changes in either the gene BRCA1 or the gene BRCA2. Women can inherit these mutations from their parents and it may be worth testing for either mutation if a woman has a particularly strong family history of breast cancer (meaning multiple relatives affected, especially if they are under 50 years old when they get the disease). If a woman is found to carry either mutation, she has a 50% chance of getting breast cancer before she is 70. Family members may elect to get tested to see if they carry the mutation as well. If a woman does have the mutation, she can get more rigorous screening or even undergo preventive (prophylactic) mastectomies to decrease her chances of contracting cancer. The decision to get tested is a highly personal one that should be discussed with a doctor who is trained in counseling patients about genetic testing.

Certain factors which increase a woman's risk of breast cancer can be altered including taking hormone replacement therapy (long term use of estrogens with progesterone for menopause symptoms slightly increases your risk), taking birth control pills (a very slight increased risk that disappears in women who have stopped them for over 10 years), not breastfeeding, drinking 2 to 5 alcoholic drinks a day, being overweight (especially after menopause), and not exercising. All of these modifiable risk factors are not nearly as important as gender, age, and family history, but they are things that a woman can control that may reduce her chances of developing a breast malignancy. Remember that all risk factors are based on probabilities, and even someone without any risk factors can still get breast cancer. Proper screening and early detection are our best weapons in reducing the mortality associated with this disease.

posted by Jason Nert @ 12:56 PM 2 comments

Breast Cancer Types

Ductal Carcinoma in-situ: Generally divided into comedo (blackhead, the cut surface of the tumor demonstrates extrusion of dead and necrotic tumor cells similar to a blackhead) and non-comedo types. DCIS is early breast cancer confined to the inside of the ductal system. The distinction between comedo and non-comedo types is important as comedocarcinoma in-situ generally behaves more aggressively and may show areas of microinvasion (small areas of invasion through the ductal wall into surrounding tissue).
The surgical management is the same as for other types of breast cancer except axillary node sampling is not done, as only 1% of these lesions will have axillary metastasis. We recommend, however, that irradiation be given if treated with conservative breast surgery to reduce the recurrence rate from 21% without irradiation, to 5%-10% with irradiation. This is a controversial area of the treatment of breast cancer.


Infiltrating Ductal: The most common type of breast cancer representing 78% of all malignancies. These lesions can be stellate (star like in appearance on mammography) in appearance or well circumscribed (rounded). The stellate lesions generally have a poorer prognosis.


Medullary Carcinoma: Comprise 15% of breast cancers. These lesions are generally well circumscribed and may be difficult to distinguish from fibroadenoma by mammography or sonography. Medullary carcinoma is estrogen and progesterone receptor (prognostic indicator) negative 90% of the time. Medullary carcinoma usually has a better prognosis than ordinary breast cancer.


Infiltrating Lobular: Representing 15% of breast cancer these lesions generally present in the upper outer quadrant of the breast as a subtle thickening and are difficult to diagnose by mammography. Infiltrating lobular can be bilateral (involve both breasts). Microscopically, these tumors exhibit a linear array of cells (Indian filing) and grow around the ducts and lobules (targeting).


Tubular Carcinoma: Orderly or well differentiated carcinoma of the breast. These lesions make up about 2% of breast cancer. They have a favorable prognosis with nearly a 95% 10-year survival.

Mucinous Carcinoma: Represents 1%-2% of carcinoma of the breast and has a favorable prognosis. These lesions are usually well circumscribed (rounded).

Inflammatory Breast Cancer: A particularly aggressive type of breast cancer the presentation is usually noted in changes in the skin of the breast including redness (erythema), thickening of the skin and prominence of the hair follicles resembling an orange peel (peau d' orange). The diagnosis is made by a skin biopsy, which reveals tumor in the lymphatic and vascular channels 50% of the time.

posted by Jason Nert @ 12:50 PM 2 comments

How To Do A Self Breast Exam

1. Lying down
   
   
   
   1. place a pillow under your right shoulder, and your right hand under
      your head.
      
   2. check the breast tissue using a circular, rubbing motion without
      lifting the fingers.
      
   3. vary pressure of your fingers to examine the different layers of breast
      tissue.
      
      
      
      • light pressure : enough to move the skin, but not the underlying layers
        
      • medium pressure : checks the mid layer of tissue
        
      • deep pressure : press almost to the ribs, just short of causing
        discomfort
        
      
      
   4. use one of the three techniques for your examination (remember to
      include the underarm tissue in your exam)
      
      
      
      • lines : start in the underarm area and lower your fingers until they
        are below the breast, move back upwards toward the middle. Use
        this up and down movement over the entire breast area.
        
      • circles : start at the outer edge of your breast, moving your fingers
        slowly around the breast in a circle. Examine the breast in smaller and
        smaller circles, moving toward the nipple.
        
      • wedges : at the outer edge of the breast, move your fingers toward the
        nipple and back to the edge in a V shape motion. Perform the same
        movement around the entire breast.
        
      
      
   
   
2. Standing in the Shower (follow the same techniques outlined above)
   
3. Mirror Exam
   
   
   
   1. with arms lowered to your sides, look for any dimpling, puckering or
      other abnormality.
      
   2. look for any discharge from both nipples
      
   
   

posted by Jason Nert @ 7:38 PM 4 comments

Teen Tanning Hazards

Parents of teen-agers are strongly encouraged by public health experts and medical professionals to discuss with their kids the dangers of indoor tanning equipment, and even to discourage its use. In fact, legislators in some states are proposing to make it illegal for a teen to tan in a commercial salon without parental consent.

According to the American Cancer Society (ACS), exposure to the sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays appears to be the most important environmental factor in developing skin cancer. Consequently, the dangers from exposure to UV rays from artificial sources of light, such as tanning beds and sunlamps, are similar to the dangers of exposure to sunlight. Moreover, some experts strongly believe that the sharp rise in the rates of the most serious type of skin cancer--malignant melanoma--may be due to increased exposure to UV radiation, whether from natural sunlight or artificial sources of light.

When exposed to UV radiation, the skin begins to produce a pigment called melanin to protect itself from burning. It is the production of melanin that causes the skin to darken and produce the tan. The production of new melanin takes three to five days.

Joshua L. Fox, M.D., a dermatologist in Fresh Meadows, N.Y., says, "Continued use of a tanning bed or sunlamp can be quite dangerous, particularly during the teen-age years." Teens are at greater risk, he says, because they are still experiencing tremendous growth at the cellular level, and, like other cells in the body, the skin cells are dividing more rapidly than they do during adulthood.

W. Howard Cyr, Ph.D., and Sharon A. Miller, both laboratory leaders in the Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, say that the agency has regulated the manufacture of sunlamp products--sunlamps, tanning beds, tanning booths, and other related equipment--since 1979. Initially, there was a widespread acute risk from sunlamp products, as indicated by a large number of skin and eye injuries treated annually in hospital emergency rooms. Federal performance standards for sunlamp products were established to protect people from acute burns and exposure to hazardous shortwave UV radiation that was unnecessary for tanning.

In 1985, the agency decided to amend the standards to make the requirements more compatible with then-current products. When sunlamp technology changed and sunlamps emitting primarily UVA radiation--longer-wave, less efficient at producing a sunburn--became prevalent, longer exposure times were allowed, Miller says.

In 1986, the FDA published a policy letter that described how the maximum timer limit should be determined and provided guidance on recommended exposure schedules. The manufacturers of sunlamp products are required to include a recommended exposure schedule in their labeling. This schedule should be clearly visible to users before they begin their exposure session.

"FDA does not recommend the use of indoor tanning equipment," Miller says. Fox agrees. "There is no such thing as a safe tan," he says. "Just one sunburn increases your risk for skin cancer."

However, Miller says that if people insist on using tanning devices, there are things they can do to reduce the potential dangers.

"Start slowly, with short exposure times, and build up to a tan. If you get the maximum exposure the first time, you will probably get burned," Miller says. And, she adds, often people don't even know they are burned until it's too late. "Remember that a sunburn doesn't usually show up until several hours after the exposure," she says. In addition, the recommended exposure schedules do not allow for tanning more frequently than every other day. After a tan is developed, tanning frequency should be reduced to no more than twice a week.

Cyr and Miller warn that, in practice, tanning salon operators control the exposure time and that they may allow the customer to exceed exposure times written on the label. This is especially true for the beginning of the tanning course when users are advised to start off with very short exposures, usually five minutes or less. Fox says that people who use these products should always ask to see the information contained in the label. Be wary, he adds, if tanning salon operators can't produce it.

Miller says that the use of FDA-compliant eyewear that blocks UV rays is absolutely essential for tanning bed users to protect their eyes from corneal burns and cataracts from long-term exposure.

A study done by researchers at Wake Forest University, published in the July 2004 issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, found that participants thought UV exposure was not only desirable for improving appearances, but also was somewhat addictive. The study concluded that "The relaxing and reinforcing effects of UV exposure contribute to tanning behavior in frequent tanners and should be explored in greater detail."

Fox advises parents to explore safer, alternative means for their children to acquire a tan. "Teens should know about the options," he says, which include self-tanners in the form of creams and gels. "Get the look you like without the damage that can occur with tanning equipment."

posted by Jason Nert @ 7:33 PM 1 comments

Who Is at Risk of Developing Cancer?

Anyone. Since the occurrence of cancer increases as individuals age, most cases affect adults beginning in middle age. About 77% of all cancers are diagnosed at ages 55 and older. Cancer researchers use the word risk in different ways. Lifetime risk refers to the probability that an individual, over the course of a lifetime, will develop cancer or die from it. In the US, men have a little less than 1 in 2 lifetime risk of developing cancer; for women the risk is a little more than 1 in 3.

Relative risk is a measure of the strength of the relationship between risk factors and the particular cancer. It compares the risk of developing cancer in persons with a certain exposure or trait to the risk in persons who do not have this exposure or trait. For example, male smokers have a 20-fold relative risk of developing lung cancer compared with nonsmokers. This means that they are about 20 times more likely to develop lung cancer than nonsmokers.

Most relative risks are not this large. For example, women who have a first-degree (mother, sister, or daughter) family history of breast cancer have about a 2-fold increased risk of developing breast cancer compared with women who do not have a family history. This means that women with a first-degree family history are about two times more likely to develop breast cancer than women who do not have a family history of the disease.

All cancers involve the malfunction of genes that control cell growth and division. About 5% to 10% of cancers are clearly hereditary, in that an inherited faulty gene predisposes the person to a very high risk of particular cancers. The remainder of cancers are not hereditary, but result from damage to genes (mutations) that occurs throughout our lifetime, either due to internal factors, such as hormones or the digestion of nutrients within cells, or external factors, such as tobacco, chemicals, and sunlight.

posted by Jason Nert @ 10:47 PM 2 comments

Alcohol in mouthwash: A cancer risk?

posted by Jason Nert @ 10:46 PM 3 comments

Sun exposure: Can it help fight cancer?

posted by Jason Nert @ 10:44 PM 1 comments

Relationships with family and friends after treatment

posted by Jason Nert @ 10:42 PM 2 comments

Malignant Mesothelioma Symptoms

Symptoms of malignant mesothelioma in the lung and chest cavity are as follows:

• Shortness of breath
• Cough
• Weight Loss
• Chest Pain
  

Symptoms of malignant mesothelioma in the abdomen are as follows:

• Abdominal swelling and pain
• Weight Loss

Wondering How You Could Have Gotten Mesothelioma Cancer?

Several diseases are associated with exposure to asbestos. They include: malignant mesothelioma, asbestosis, pleural effusion, pleural plaques and thickening, and lung cancer.

Prior to 1975 asbestos fibers were commonly used. You could have been exposed to asbestos while working at any number of different industries. Chief among the possibilities would be jobs at asbestos mining and milling plants, shipyards, fireproofing and heating, construction, automotive repair, insulation, pipefitting and boilermaking.

If you did not work in one of these industries or another that used asbestos, it is also possible that you could have been exposed if someone in your household worked with asbestos and carried asbestos fibers home on his or her clothing, hair or body. You may also have been exposed indirectly by living near asbestos mines.

Although it is true that most patients with malignant mesothelioma, lung cancer or other asbestos-related diseases likely had prolonged exposure to asbestos over a long period of time, it is also possible for one to develop one of these diseases from a brief exposure to asbestos.

The odds of developing lung cancer from smoking also increases significantly from exposure to asbestos. Although most people with lung cancer are told that their lung cancer was caused from smoking, if you or someone you know has lung cancer and also worked in an environment that gave you exposure to asbestos, it is highly recommended that you contact an attorney that specializes in handling mesothelioma and lung cancer cases caused by exposure to asbestos. The justice system has been very generous in its rewards to people who suffer diseases caused by asbestos exposure.

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:15 PM 6 comments

How Is Mesothelioma Treated?

Most people who develop mesothelioma have worked on jobs where they inhaled asbestos particles. However, they may have been been exposed to asbestos dust and fibre in other ways. This could include working with asbestos or by home renovation using asbestos cement products or even by washing the clothes of a family member who worked with asbestos. The resulting disease is rare form of cancer in which malignant (cancerous) cells are found in the mesothelium, a protective sac that covers most of the body's internal organs.

Mesothelioma occurs more often in men than in women and risk increases with age, but this disease can appear in either men or women at any age. About 2,000 new cases of mesothelioma are diagnosed in the United States each year. Although reported incidence rates have increased in the past 20 years, mesothelioma is still a relatively rare cancer.

There are various procedures used for the treatment of mesothelioma. The type of treatment depends on the location of the cancer, the stage of the disease, and the patient's age and general health.

A common treatment of the disease is by means of surgery by the removal of part of the lining of the chest or abdomen and some of the tissue around it. For cancer of the pleura, a lung may be removed in an operation called a pneumonectomy. Sometimes part of the diaphragm, the muscle below the lungs that helps with breathing, is also removed.

Another method is Radiation therapy, also called radiotherapy. This involves the use of high-energy rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy affects the cancer cells only in the treated area. The radiation may come from a machine or from putting materials that produce radiation through thin plastic tubes into the area where the cancer cells are found .

Anticancer drugs can be used to kill cancer cells throughout the body. This is known as chemotherapy and involves the administration of the drugs by injection into a vein (intravenous, or IV). Currently, doctors are also studying the effectiveness of putting chemotherapy directly into the chest or abdomen.

Because mesothelioma is very hard to control, the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) is sponsoring clinical trials that are designed to find new treatments and better ways to use current treatments.

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:12 PM 3 comments

An Overview Of Asbestos Disease - Mesothelioma

What Is Asbestos?

Asbestos disease, mesothelioma cancers, lung cancers and asbestosis are the diseases caused because of asbestos exposure. Asbestos constitutes different naturally occurring fibrous minerals in some rocks and soil. It has found widespread use in industries and building materials such as fireproofing, roofing shingles, electric insulation, furnace, hot pipe covering, and friction products.

Recent studies have, however, revealed that exposure to asbestos can have damaging health implication resulting in asbestos disease and mesothelioma for both workers in industries making use of asbestos as well as those who live in the environment surrounding such places. Workers may inhale fine asbestos particles in the air; they also become exposed through skin contact with asbestos or by swallowing asbestos fibers while at work. These workers are vulnerable to asbestos diseases as mesothelioma and asbestosis.

Serious Effects Of Asbestos Disease- Mesothelioma

Mesothelioma is the most serious of several asbestos-related diseases detected so far. This is because of the carcinogenic effect of asbestos particles. Asbestos can cause cancer of the lungs, esophagus, colon, rectum, stomach, vocal chords, and kidneys. About 70 percent to 80 percent of all cases of asbestos disease mesothelioma - a rare type of cancer of the mesothelium, the membrane that covers and protects most of the body internal organs - are the result of asbestos exposure at work.

Asbestos disease mesothelioma may not immediately manifest. The asbestos particles can lie dormant in the body for several years and manifest later, when the prognosis is very grim. It is possible that by the time the disease is diagnosed, the cancer may have already spread significantly. In view of health concerns all new uses of asbestos in the manufacturing industries have been banned in the United States from July 1989 onward. In particular, the use of asbestos in hand-held hair dryers was voluntarily stopped in 1979. Schools are required to test for use of asbestos roofing and it is removed or covered up.

Compensation To Victims Of Asbestos Disease Mesothelioma

The first case of asbestos disease mesothelioma was filed nearly 70 years ago. Employees in industries with considerable risk of asbestos poisoning are, in principle, eligible for mesothelioma compensation. The compensation is available only for those employees who run the risk of asbestos exposure since the 1940s. Recently, many mesothelioma patients have filed lawsuits for compensation. They have been awarded compensation on the ground that the owners of industries continued to use asbestos despite the information of the health hazards it entails. Currently, help is available to victims of asbestos disease mesothelioma through many specialized legal firms in the United States.

posted by Jason Nert @ 11:08 PM 7 comments

How is bone cancer diagnosed?

To diagnose bone cancer, the doctor asks about the patient's personal and family medical history and does a complete physical exam. In addition to checking the general signs of health, the doctor usually orders blood tests and x-rays. X-rays can show the location, size, and shape of a bone tumor. On x-rays, benign tumors usually look round and smooth, with distinct edges. Bone cancers generally have odd shapes and irregular edges.

If x-rays show that the tumor is possible cancer, some of the following special tests may be done. These tests can also show whether the cancer has begun to spread.

Bone scans outline the size, shape, and location of abnormal areas in the bone. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into the bloodstream. This material collects in the bones and is detected by a special instrument called a scanner.

CT or CAT scan is an x-ray procedure that gives detailed pictures of cross-sections of the body. The pictures are created by a computer.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) also creates detailed pictures of cross-sections of the body. MRI uses a very strong magnet linked to a computer.

Angiograms are special x-rays of the blood vessels. A dye that shows up on x-rays is injected into the bloodstream so that the vessels can be seen in detail. This test is also done to help plan surgery.

A biopsy is the only sure way to tell whether cancer is present. Biopsies are best done at a hospital where doctors are experienced in the diagnosis of bone cancers. The doctor removes a sample of tissue from the bone tumor. A pathologist looks at the tissue under a microscope. If cancer is found, the pathologist can tell the type of sarcoma and whether it is likely to grow slowly or quickly.

If a diagnosis of bone cancer is made, it is important for the doctor to know exactly where the cancer is located and whether it has spread from its original location. This information is very important for planning treatment. The results of exams, tests, x-rays, scans, and the biopsy are all used in staging the cancer. The stage indicates whether the disease has spread and how much tissue is affected.

posted by Jason Nert @ 8:18 PM 2 comments

The Genetics of Breast Cancer

By: Linda T. Vahdat, MD
By: Gladys Rosenthal MS, CGC

Genetic sources of disease are being explored like never before. The search for genetic explanations of breast cancer is no exception, and the "breast cancer genes," BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 have received a great deal of attention in the media. But only about ten percent of breast cancers are linked to mutations in these genes. Dr. Linda Vahdat and Gladys Rosenthal, two experts in breast cancer genetics offer basic information about the role heredity plays in cancer risk.

What is a gene?
GLADYS ROSENTHAL, MS: A gene is the basic unit of heredity. Our genes are the blueprints for our appearances, and are also our blueprints for housekeeping functions, or all the processes that our body has to go through in order to keep going. We each have two genes for each trait. Our genes come in pairs: one from our mother, one from our father. So that half of our hereditary material comes from the maternal side and half from the paternal side.

What are the "breast cancer genes"?
GLADYS ROSENTHAL, MS: There are two genes that we know of are associated with breast cancer and ovarian cancer: breast cancer gene #1, or BRCA-1, and breast cancer gene #2, or BRCA-2.

Each of us has two BRCA-1 genes and two BRCA-2 genes. These genes are tumor suppressor genes, or blueprints for specific proteins that are involved in tumor suppression. If there is a change, or mutation, in one of these genes, the protein that the gene makes will be damaged. That damage to the gene compromises its ability to perform the function of tumor suppression.

If a woman has a mutation in one of the breast cancer genes, what is her risk of developing cancer?
LINDA VAHDAT, MD: She's absolutely not destined to develop cancer. One of the things that we've learned about breast cancer is that there are many risk factors. Having a mutation in either the BRCA-1 or BRCA-2 gene can certainly increase the susceptibility. But there have been many studies done, and I believe that it is still accepted that, for women with a mutated gene, the range on the lifetime risk of breast cancer development is between 50 to 87 percent. It is not 100 percent.

What are some other risk factors for breast cancer?
LINDA VAHDAT, MD: There are a number of risk factors for breast cancer. Certainly the biggest risk factor is increasing age and that's why we see statistics such as one in eight lifetime risk for development of breast cancer. But a woman of 25 doesn't have a one in eight risk of developing breast cancer. It's probably one in several thousand. So the biggest risk factor is increasing age.

Family histories play a role as well. If you have a first-degree relative-a mother or a sister-who has breast cancer, this can increase your risk of developing breast cancer. There are certain reproductive risk factors, early onset of menstruation, late menopause, and late age at first full-term birth and these things all factor into the risk equation.

So what should women who are an increased risk of hereditary breast cancer do?
LINDA VAHDAT, MD: I think that women who are at risk for hereditary breast cancer clearly have an increased risk over women in the general population. They should consider entering clinical trials not only for surveillance, but also for chemoprevention, if it's appropriate.

posted by Jason Nert @ 8:08 PM 2 comments

Does Weight Gain Increase Breast Cancer Risk?

One of the frightening aspects of breast cancer is that many of the known risk factors for the disease, such as family history, are beyond our control. But a recent study found that weight gain of 20 pounds or more increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

In premenopausal women who are overweight, fat tissue appears to protect against breast cancer. Although fat tissue produces estrogen, obese women tend to ovulate less frequently than leaner women, so they have less estrogen circulating in their bloodstream; such estrogen can fuel the growth of certain types of breast cancer.

In older women, however, fat tissue increases breast cancer risk because the estrogen from parts of the body other than the ovaries becomes more important. "Because postmenopausal women don't have estrogen produced in the ovaries, the vast majority of estrogen in these women is produced in the fat tissue," explains coauthor Heather Spencer Feigelson, PhD, a senior epidemiologist at the Atlanta-based American Cancer Society.

In the study, published in the February issue of Cancer, Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, researchers analyzed 1,934 postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Weight gain of 21 to 30 pounds since age 18 was associated with a 40 percent increase in risk in women who had never used menopausal hormone therapy. Breast cancer risk doubled in women who gained 70 pounds or more, compared to women who stayed within five pounds of their 18-year-old weight.

Although no association between weight gain and breast cancer was seen in women who took menopausal hormone therapy, Dr. Feigelson says that their use of hormones, which contain estrogen, made it difficult for researchers to really determine if weight gain played a role in their risk.

But few middle-aged women are able to fit into the outfit they wore to their high school graduation, and women who have stayed slim all their lives may still get breast cancer. So what information can women take from this study?

"The message is that even modest amounts of weight gain appear to increase risk of breast cancer," Dr. Feigelson says. "This study is just another piece of evidence that maintaining a healthy weight though adult life is very important not just for diabetes and heart disease but for breast cancer as well."

posted by Jason Nert @ 8:05 PM 2 comments

What is Remission?

Remission refers to a shrinking of cancer. Doctors categorize remissions based on their extent. If after treatment, there's no evidence of the cancer on any tests, including blood tests and scans, doctors refer to this as "complete" remission. If the cancer is smaller but doesn't disappear completely, it's called a "partial" remission.

People who achieve a complete remission may be cured of their cancer. But there is still a chance that the cancer will return. This depends on the type of cancer and how far the cancer has spread. In people who achieve only partial remission, the cancer nearly always regrows.

posted by Jason Nert @ 8:00 PM 1 comments

Sexuality after cancer treatment: What men can expect

Treatment for certain cancers can affect your sexuality, causing a range of signs and symptoms that can make sex with your partner more difficult. But that doesn't mean you can't have a healthy sex life after cancer treatment. Find out if you're at risk of sexual side effects after treatment and which treatments can cause these side effects. Knowing more about your situation can help you feel more in control and help you find a solution that will work for you.

Erectile dysfunction: Most common sexual side effect of cancer treatment for men

A number of sexual side effects can occur as a result of cancer treatment, including:

• Inability to achieve or maintain an erection (erectile dysfunction)


• Difficulty climaxing


• Orgasm without discharge of semen (dry orgasm)


• Weaker, less satisfying orgasms


• Loss of libido


• Pain during sex

Not every man with cancer in his pelvic area will experience sexual side effects. Your doctor can discuss the level of risk you may encounter for your specific treatment.

Adapted from: American Cancer Society, 2005, and the Lance Armstrong Foundation, 2005

You might experience sexual side effects even before you begin your treatment or even if you're being treated for a nonpelvic cancer. For instance, anxiety about your treatment or depressed feelings about having cancer could cause a loss of libido. Sometimes emotional factors are culprits for sexual side effects in addition to the physical changes you undergo during treatment.

How cancer treatments affect your sexuality

Surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy and chemotherapy can all cause sexual side effects.

Surgery

Nerves in your pelvic area control blood flow to your penis. If you have a tumor in your pelvic area that needs to be removed, your surgeon must work carefully to avoid accidentally damaging the nerves, which fan out around your prostate. A severed nerve can lead to weakened erections or the inability to achieve an erection. Surgeries that can cause erectile dysfunction include:

• 
  Abdominoperineal resection. If you have colon or rectal cancer, you may require this surgery to remove your lower colon and rectum.


• 
  Radical cystectomy. This surgery for bladder cancer involves removing the bladder, prostate, upper urethra and seminal vesicles.


• 
  Radical prostatectomy. If you have prostate cancer, you may consider this surgery to remove your prostate and seminal vesicles.


• 
  Penectomy. Though rare, surgery to remove all or part of the penis is an option for men with penile cancer. If the penectomy is partial, you may still be able to achieve an erection.

Newer nerve-sparing operations are less likely to cause erectile dysfunction, though whether you're a candidate for that type of surgery depends on the size and location of your cancer. For some cancers, nerve damage can't be avoided if the surgeon is to remove all of the cancer. Men who undergo nerve-sparing prostatectomy may experience temporary erectile dysfunction, while the effects are permanent in men who are not eligible for the nerve-sparing surgery.

Nerves damaged during surgery may also cause you to experience a dry orgasm — an orgasm without semen. The semen your body produces may not leave your testicles, or it may be pushed into your bladder (retrograde ejaculation). Some men say that a dry ejaculation feels no different and, often, their partners don't notice or don't mind the difference. However, other men find that dry orgasms are weaker or feel less pleasurable than their orgasms before surgery.

Radiation therapy

Radiation aimed at the pelvis can cause erectile dysfunction, though it isn't clear why. Radiation may damage nerves in your pelvic area, block blood flow to your penis or decrease the levels of testosterone in your body. Radiation's side effects start slowly about six months to a year after treatment.

Whether you experience erectile dysfunction as a result of radiation therapy depends on the amount of radiation you receive and how much of your pelvic area is being treated — a greater level of radiation over a greater amount of your body is more likely to cause sexual side effects. Men who smoke or who have a history of heart disease, high blood pressure or diabetes also may be at a higher risk of erectile dysfunction after radiation therapy. These conditions may have already caused some artery damage, which can be exacerbated by the radiation.

The amount of semen you ejaculate may decrease after radiation therapy. You may feel pain during ejaculation after treatment, though it usually goes away within several weeks.

Hormone therapy

If you have prostate cancer that has spread, your doctor might try to lower the level of testosterone in your body by removing your testicles (orchiectomy) or treating you with medications. Some prostate cancers rely on the hormone testosterone for fuel. By lowering your testosterone levels, your doctor hopes to slow or stop your cancer's progression. Men who have large prostate cancers might receive hormone therapy to shrink the prostate before surgery — to make it easier to remove.

Hormone therapy most commonly causes a loss of libido, but it doesn't happen to everyone. Some men find that they have a desire for sex, but are unable to get an erection or are unable to climax. Younger men tend to have fewer sexual side effects from hormone therapy. Hormone therapy can also cause you to produce less semen when you ejaculate.

Chemotherapy

You may experience a loss of libido and difficulty achieving an erection after chemotherapy. Some chemotherapy drugs reduce the amount of testosterone your body produces. You'll usually regain your sexual function within a few weeks of ending treatment.

What you can do to regain sexual function

Some sexual side effects of cancer treatment will resolve in a few weeks. Others may last for a year or two after treatment, and some will be permanent. Find out as much as you can about what's impeding your sexual function. This will help you feel more in control of the situation and help guide you to treatment options. You may also want to:

• 
  Do some experimenting. You may find that certain situations reignite your sexual desire or help you get an erection. Pay attention to what works — whether it's stimulating your penis yourself or thinking about sexual fantasies. You might find your orgasms are more intense if you spend more time on foreplay.


• 
  Talk with your doctor. Your doctor can give you more information on what's causing any sexual dysfunction you're experiencing. From there you can discuss treatment options, such as medications, implants or devices that can facilitate an erection. Keep in mind, though, that some doctors may be just as reluctant or embarrassed as you are to talk about sexual side effects. If so, ask your doctor for a referral to a specialist, such as a urologist or a clinical health psychologist.


• 
  Talk with your partner. Let your partner know what works best for you. Be honest about your concerns and feelings. If you're silent about what you're experiencing, your partner may feel rejected. Your partner can offer vital support as you recover from cancer treatment. He or she might also have ideas on how to help you regain your sexual function.


• 
  Talk with other cancer survivors. Your health care team might be able to steer you to a support group in your town. Otherwise, connect with other cancer survivors online. If you're embarrassed about discussing sex face-to-face with strangers, the online environment provides you more anonymity. Start with the American Cancer Society's Cancer Survivors Network.

Men who have had cancer treatment may find that it simply takes time to regain sexual function. Medications and other options for treatment work in some men and not in others. Sometimes it takes a year or two for nerves or blood vessels in your pelvic area to heal.

posted by Jason Nert @ 7:47 PM 4 comments

Side effect of cancer treatment

Your doctor may monitor your blood cell counts carefully during your cancer treatment. There's a good reason you're having your blood drawn so often — low blood cell counts put you at risk of dangerous complications. Find out what your doctor is looking for and why it's so important to be vigilant for low blood cell counts. Know what you should be on the look out for, too.

posted by Jason Nert @ 7:31 PM 1 comments

Obesity and Cancer: A deadly link

The risk of dying from cancer increases significantly for both men and women who are obese, according to a new study published in the April 24th, 2003 issue of The New England Journal of Medicine. This increased risk is shown to affect women more often than men. Being overweight or obese, categories defined by measuring body mass index (BMI) accounts for roughly 14 percent of cancer deaths in men and 20 percent of deaths in women, according to the results of the study.

In this prospective study, researchers from the American Cancer Society examined the relationship between BMI and death from cancer in more than 900,000 adults. They found that increased body weight raises the risk of death from all cancers combined and from cancers at multiple specific sites. In addition, among patients in the heaviest weight category, with a BMI greater than or equal to 40, the risk of cancer death was 52 percent higher in men and 62 percent higher in women when compared with normal weight adults. BMI is calculated by dividing weight (kilograms) by height (meters) squared.

Women are affected more often than men for several reasons. Many studies have established a strong association between breast cancer risk and increased body weight and only a modest association between prostate cancer and obesity. "Obese women double their risk of breast cancer," according to Dr. Carmen Rodriguez, MD, MPH Senior Epidemiologist at the American Cancer Society and one of the authors of the study. Therefore, increased body weight plays a more significant role among women compared to men suffering from the most common forms of cancer. In addition, Dr. Rodriguez explains: "the percentage of obese women is higher than men, 33% versus 28%."

The incidence of obesity in the United States has increased significantly over the last two decades. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, obesity is defined as a BMI greater than or equal to 30. To be classified as overweight, the BMI is between 25 and 29.9. Recent data from the National Center for Health Statistics in Hyattsville, Maryland, shows that roughly 31 percent of the adult population aged 20 years or older meet the criteria for obesity. And the numbers continue to rise.

While the reasons underlying the association between cancer death and obesity are not fully understood, female hormones are thought to play a role. "Obesity increases the risk of breast cancer only among post-menopausal women," explains Dr. Rodriguez. Because many post-menopausal breast cancers are stimulated by estrogen and fat increases circulating hormones in the body, the risk of cancer increases for obese women.

Obesity has been linked to many serious health conditions, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, and high blood pressure. According to Dr. Rodriguez, there aren't many studies showing that weight control programs lower the risk of cancer death: "We can speculate that if you lower your weight, you will lower your risk as well. But it is not easy to do an observational study with enough people who have been obese and lower and maintain their weight." She recommends maintaining a healthy weight as well as good nutrition and exercise habits throughout life.

posted by Jason Nert @ 6:43 PM 2 comments

Hurthle cell carcinoma

Hurthle cell carcinoma is a rare type of thyroid cancer. It accounts for only 2 percent to 4 percent of all thyroid cancers. Hurthle cell tumors are a subcategory of follicular tumors of the thyroid. About one-third of these tumors are cancerous (malignant).

Signs and symptoms of thyroid cancer may include:

• A lump in the front of the neck, just below your Adam's apple


• Hoarseness or difficulty swallowing


• Trouble breathing


• Enlarged lymph nodes, especially in your neck


• Pain in your throat or neck

An ultrasound scan can detect the presence of a thyroid tumor. To identify the precise type of tumor, a fine-needle aspiration biopsy is performed. In this procedure, the doctor inserts a thin needle into the tumor and removes a sample of cells. The sample is then sent to a laboratory and analyzed under a microscope.

If it's identified as a follicular tumor, the doctor will likely recommend surgical removal. This is the only way to tell if the tumor is cancerous and has spread to nearby tissues. Treatment may also include radiation therapy with radioactive iodine pills.

posted by Jason Nert @ 6:21 PM 1 comments

Childrens Brain Tumors

p>Learning that your child has brain cancer can be one of the most traumatic experiences a parent ever has to go through. There are no simple answers for all the questions that fill a parent's mind. Each child, each tumor, each treatment and each outcome are different.

But one thing a parent can know for certain is that the prognosis for children with brain tumors is improving each year, and specialists have more treatment options than ever at their disposal to care for your child.

About Childhood Brain Tumors

Tumors are masses of abnormal cells that grow out of control. When these tumors are located in the brain, they can be extremely complicated to treat because of the delicate surrounding tissue. Even benign (non-cancerous) tumors can be life threatening because of the pressure they can place on vital brain structures.

Brain tumors in children are relatively rare – occurring in only five of every 100,000 children. As with other tumors in both children and adults, surgery is the primary treatment, usually followed by radiation treatment and/or chemotherapy. Unfortunately, because the brain of a child is still developing, these treatments can result in more substantial and permanent side effects for children than for adults.

Because of the possible long-term problems and the risk of a tumor returning, assessments and care usually continue for years after the tumor is removed.

posted by Jason Nert @ 6:06 PM 2 comments

What Is Cancer?

Cancer occurs when cells in a part of the body begin to grow out of control. Normal cells divide and grow in an orderly fashion, but cancer cells do not. They continue to grow and crowd out normal cells. Although there are many kinds of cancer, they all have in common this out-of-control growth of cells.


Different kinds of cancer can behave very differently. For example, lung cancer and breast cancer are very different diseases. They grow at different rates and respond to different treatments. That's why people with cancer need treatment that is aimed at their kind of cancer.


Even when cancer has spread to a new place in the body, it is still named after the part of the body where it started. For example, if prostate cancer spreads to the bones, it is still called prostate cancer. If breast cancer spreads to the lungs, it is still breast cancer.


When cancer comes back in a person who appeared to be free of the disease after treatment, it is called a recurrence.

posted by Jason Nert @ 5:59 PM 2 comments

What Are The Different Types Of Skin Cancer?

There are a number of different types of skin cancers depending on the type of skin cell from which they arise. Each kind of skin cancer has its own distinctive appearance. Certain skin cancers also tend to develop in specific areas of the body.

• Basal cell carcinoma
  


• Squamous cell carcinoma
  


• A third type, malignant melanoma, is relatively rare but can be very dangerous.

Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are called nonmelanoma to set them apart from the more serious melanoma skin cancers.

• Basal cell carcinoma is the most common kind of skin cancer. More than 90 per cent of all skin cancers in the United States are basal cell carcinomas. Fortunately, basal cell carcinoma also is the least serious kind of skin cancer. That's because it grows slowly and rarely spreads. It spreads in less than 1 out of every 1,000 patients.
  


• Squamous cell carcinoma is more serious because it does spread to vital organs inside the body. Spread occurs in a few cases in every 100. It does so slowly. At first cancer cells tend to spread only as far as the nearest lymph nodes structures, which filter out and trap the cancer cells. If spread has occurred, the affected lymph nodes can be removed before cancer spreads to vital organs.
  

• Malignant melanoma is the most serious kind of skin cancer because it may spread quickly from the skin through the lymph nodes or blood, to internal organs.
  

posted by Jason Nert @ 5:49 PM 2 comments

What is Neutropenia?

Neutropenia refers to the presence of abnormally low levels of neutrophils in the circulating blood. Neutrophils are a specific kind of white blood cell that help prevent and fight infections. The most common reason that cancer patients experience neutropenia is as a side effect of chemotherapy. Chemotherapy-induced neutropenia typically occurs 3-7 days following administration of the chemotherapy drugs and continues for several days before recovering to normal levels. Infrequently, cancer patients may also experience neutropenia from other medications or as a consequence of their underlying cancer. When discussing the consequences and management of neutropenia, it is important to distinguish between chemotherapy-induced neutropenia and neutropenia resulting from other causes.

When chemotherapy affects bone marrow, patients may lose white cells, specifically neutrophils, one of the body’s chief defense mechanisms. Neutrophils will rush to the site of an infection to attack invading bacteria. Typically there are billions of neutrophils in the blood; however certain chemotherapy drugs will lower the neutrophil count. The longer an individual remains without enough neutrophils in the blood, the more susceptible he/she is to bacterial and fungal infections. The type and dose of chemotherapy affects how far the neutrophil count drops and how long it will take to recover.

While receiving chemotherapy, blood may be tested frequently to make sure enough neutrophils are present to fight infection. When a doctor or nurse discusses blood test results, they refer to the "absolute neutrophil count" (ANC) or the number of neutrophils in the blood. A "low white blood count" is another common term used to describe a low neutrophil level in the blood. Fortunately, having a low level of neutrophils can be corrected.

When patients experience neutropenia following administration of chemotherapy, they are at risk of certain side effects. Specifically, the fewer the neutrophils in the blood and the longer a patient remains without enough neutrophils, the more susceptible he/she is to developing a bacterial or fungal infection. Neutrophils are a major component of antibacterial defense mechanisms. Neutropenia confers a substantial risk of life-threatening infection and the magnitude of risk is closely correlated with the severity and duration of neutropenia. As the neutrophil count falls below 1.0, 0.5 and 0.1 x 109/L, the frequency of life-threatening infection rises steeply from 10% to 19% and 28%, respectively. Patients developing fever during neutropenia require treatment with intravenous antibiotics and occasionally admission to the hospital until the neutrophil blood cells return to sufficient levels in the blood to fight the infection.

Neutropenia is important for another reason. When patients are treated with chemotherapy, it is for the purpose of destroying cancer cells in order to reduce symptoms from their cancer, prolong their survival or increase their chance of cure. Chemotherapy may be administered as a single drug or as a combination of several drugs. The combination of chemotherapy drugs administered to a patient is referred to as a treatment regimen. In a chemotherapy treatment regimen, drugs are administered to patients at a defined dose and according to a specific time schedule. The dose and time schedule of drugs administered in the chemotherapy regimen has been scientifically derived to produce the best chance of survival or cure. When patients develop neutropenia following administration of chemotherapy, doctors may have to delay treatment or reduce the doses of the chemotherapy. Clinical studies have shown for certain diseases that when the dose of therapy is reduced or the treatment cycles prolonged, patients have lower cure rates than if they had been able to receive therapy at the full dose on schedule. Fortunately, there are strategies for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia that have been proven to reduce the incidence of fever, infection and admission to the hospital and help patients receive their treatment on schedule.

posted by Jason Nert @ 5:43 PM 2 comments

What Is Chemotherapy And How Does It Work?

Chemotherapy is the use of medicines (or drugs) to treat disease. We sometimes call this type of treatment just "chemo." Although surgery and radiation therapy destroy or damage cancer cells in a specific area, chemotherapy works throughout the body. Chemotherapy drugs can destroy cancer cells that have metastasized or spread to parts of the body far from the primary (original) tumor.

More than 100 chemotherapy drugs are used in various combinations. Although a single chemotherapy drug can be used to treat cancer, generally they are more powerful when used with other drugs. Your chemotherapy treatment probably will consist of more than one drug. This is called combination chemotherapy. A combination of drugs with different actions can work together to kill more cancer cells and reduce the chance that you may become resistant to a particular chemotherapy drug.

You and your doctor will decide which drug or combination of drugs, dosages, way it will be given, and frequency and length of treatment are best for you. All of these decisions will depend on the type of cancer, its location, the extent of its growth, how it is affecting your normal body functions, and your general health.

A Checklist of Questions to Ask Your Doctor or Nurse

Before choosing chemotherapy as a treatment option, you should understand the expected benefits, side effects, and risks. Consider asking your doctor or nurse the following questions. In fact, take these questions with you to your next appointment. Our information, along with the information you receive from your doctor, should provide you with what you need to know about your treatment and give you realistic expectations about the outcome.

• What is the goal of chemotherapy for my cancer?
  


• What are the chances that the chemotherapy will work?
  


• After chemotherapy, will I be cured, in remission, or relieved of my symptoms?
  


• Are there other ways to achieve the same goals?
  


• How will I know if the chemotherapy is working?
  


• If the chemotherapy doesn't work are there other treatments for me?
  


• What are the potential risks and side effects of the anticancer drug(s) I will be taking? How do the side effects of this chemotherapy compare with side effects of other treatments?
  


• How will I receive chemotherapy, how often, and for how long? Where will I be given the drugs?
  


• Are there ways to help me prepare for treatment and decrease the chances of side effects?
  


• Will my diet be restricted in any way? My activities? My work? Exercise? Sexual activities?
  


• Will I be treated with surgery, radiation, or both? If so, when and why? What are the expected results of each type of treatment?
  


• If chemotherapy is to follow surgery or radiation, will it destroy any remaining cancer cells? Could chemotherapy be used alone?
  


• Are there any clinical trials I could take part in?
  


• How much will chemotherapy cost and will it be covered by my insurance or health plan? If the insurance company requests a second opinion, or if I would like one, whom do you suggest I see?
  

Here are some tips for remembering your doctor's answers:

• Take notes during your appointments. Don't feel shy about asking your doctor to slow down if you need more time to write.
  


• If you can, use a tape recorder during your visit so you won't miss a thing.
  


• Consider taking a friend or relative to your appointment to help you understand what your doctor says during your visit and to refresh your memory afterward.
  


• Always ask your doctor, nurse, and pharmacist as many questions as you want. If you don't understand their answers, keep asking until you do. Keep a "running list" and write down each new question as it occurs to you.
  

posted by Jason Nert @ 5:39 PM 2 comments

Mammograms: Worth It?

Some experts argue that the value of yearly mammograms has been overstated. After all, 90% of suspicious findings on the exam turn out to be nothing. But a study funded by the National Cancer Institute may put an end to the long-simmering debate--by concluding that the screening saves as many lives as new cancer treatments do.

The breast cancer death rate has fallen by 24% over the past decade. To figure out what caused the drop, seven teams of researchers from major cancer centers in the United States and the Netherlands used statistics to tease apart the contributions of mammograms and improved cancer treatments. They found that mammograms were responsible for up to half of the decline.

That adds punch to a familiar message: All women age 40 and older should get a mammogram every 1 or 2 years--and they may want to start earlier if there's a history of the disease in their immediate family.

If previous mammograms indicate that you have dense breasts, ask if it's possible to get a digital mammogram. A new Northwestern University study found that in such cases these high-tech screens are up to 22% more accurate than standard ones.

posted by Jason Nert @ 5:35 PM 1 comments

Understanding Cancer Types and Staging

In order to even begin to start researching your cancer, you need to gather
some basic information about your situation. You need:

• The Medical Name of Your Cancer


• The Stage of Your Cancer


• Possibly the Grade of Your Cancer


• Possibly Other Prognostic Factors

You needn't understand every bit of the detailed explanation below to get this
information. All you need to do to is to ask your doctor for the medical name
of your cancer, the stage of your tumor, which will be a Roman numeral I-IV or
"recurrent", and maybe the grade, and also for the results of any special tests
that were done on your tumor. (When you ask, it's also helpful to get copies of
any operative reports, and any pathology or biopsy reports.)

If you do choose to do serious research into the technical literature for your
cancer, it will be extremely useful to understand how cancer is
classified and staged in general, as well as to understand the staging system
for your particular cancer.

Getting the Medical Name of Your Cancer

Appropriate treatment for cancer depends on what kind of cancer you have.
The type of cancer is determined by the organ the cancer starts in, the
kind of cell from which it is derived, as well the appearance of the
cancer cells.

Cancer begins when a cell begins dividing uncontrollably. Eventually these
cells form a visible mass or tumor. This initial tumor is called the
"primary" tumor. Cells from the primary tumor can break off and lodge
elsewhere in the body where they then grow into secondary tumors. This process
is called "metastasis" and a cancer which has spread to other organs is called
"metastatic." When cancer spreads to another organ, the type of cancer remains
the type of the primary tumor. Thus cancer that started in the colon and spread
to the liver is still colon cancer. It is not "liver cancer".
Similarly breast cancer that has spread to the bone is not "bone
cancer", it is metastatic breast cancer.

Often, several different kinds of cancer can start in the same organ. For
instance, kidney cancers include renal cell cancer, the most common kidney
cancer, Wilm's tumor, which usually affects children, and transitional cell
cancer, which is similar to bladder cancer. The treatment of these three
kinds of kidney cancer is completely different. So you can see that it
would be difficult to research the options for kidney cancer unless you
know what kind you have. To find out what kind of cancer you have, the
easiest thing is to ask your doctor, but the diagnosis will also be on
most medical reports pertaining to your case.

Some people who write me request help with such cancers as "carcinoma",
"adenocarcinoma" or, "sarcoma". These are actually very broad classes of cancer
cell types, rather than particular cancers, and are not nearly specific enough
to allow one to research treatment. Sarcomas are cancers of the connective
tissue, cartilage, bone, muscle, and so on. Carcinomas are cancers of
epithelial (lining) cells. Adenocarcinoma refers to carcinoma derived from
cells of glandular origin. One can, for instance, have an adenocarcinoma of the
pancreas, or an adenocarcinoma of the lung. These are very different cancers.

Cancer Staging

Cancer staging systems describe how far cancer has spread anatomically and
attempt to put patients with similar prognosis and treatment in the same
staging group. Since prognosis and treatment depend quite a bit on the stage,
you can see how important it is to know what stage you have! At the same time
other factors, including your general health, your own preference, and the
results of biochemical tests on your cancer cells will contribute to
determining the prognosis and treatment. So while the stage is important it is
not everything.

The concept of stage is applicable to almost all cancers except for most forms
of leukemia. Since leukemias involve all of the blood, they are not
anatomically localized like other cancers, so the concept of staging doesn't
make as much sense for them. A few forms of leukemia do have staging systems
which reflect various measures of how advanced the disease is. For most solid
tumors, there are two related cancer staging systems, the Overall Stage
Grouping, and the TNM system.

Overall Stage Groupings (Roman Numeral Staging)

In this system, cases are grouped into four stages denoted by Roman numerals I
through IV, or are classified as "recurrent." In general, stage I cancers are
small localized cancers that are usually curable, while stage IV usually
represents inoperable or metastatic cancer. Stage II and III cancers are
usually locally advanced and/or with involvement of local lymph nodes.
Actually, these stages are defined precisely, but the definition is different
for each kind of cancer. In addition, it is important to realize that the
prognosis for a given stage also depends on what kind of cancer it is, so that
a stage II non small cell lung cancer has a different prognosis from a stage II
cervical cancer.

Unfortunately, it is common for cancer to return months or years after the
primary tumor has been removed because cancer cells had already broken away and
lodged in distant locations by the time the primary tumor was discovered, but
had not formed tumors which were large enough to detect at that time. Sometimes
a tiny bit of the primary tumor was left behind in the initial surgery and this
later grows into a macroscopic tumor. Cancer that recurs after all visible
tumor has been eradicated, is called recurrent disease. Disease that
recurs in the area of the primary tumor is locally recurrent, and
disease that recurs as metastases is referred to as a distant
recurrence. Distant recurrence is usually treated similarly to stage IV
disease (sometimes the terms are used interchangeably) and anyone in this
situation should investigate options for both stage IV and recurrent disease.
The significance of a Local recurrence may be quite different than distant
recurrence, depending on the type of cancer.

For solid tumors, stages I-IV are actually defined in terms of a more detailed
staging system called the "TNM" system.

TNM Staging

In the TNM system, TNM stands for Tumor, Nodes, and Metastases. Each of these
is categorized separately and classified with a number to give the total stage.
Thus a T1N1M0 cancer means the patient has a T1 tumor, N1 lymph node
involvement, and no distant metastases. Of course the definitions of T, N and M
are specific to each cancer, but it is possible to give a general idea of what
they mean.

T: Tumor

T Classifies the extent of the primary tumor, and is normally given as
T0 through T4. T0 represents a tumor that has not even started to invade the
local tissues. This is called "In Situ". T4 on the other hand represents a
large primary tumor that has probably invaded other organs by direct extension,
and which is usually inoperable.

N: Lymph Nodes

N classifies the amount of regional lymph node involvement. It is
important to understand that only the lymph nodes draining the area of the
primary tumor are considered in this classification. Involvement of
distant lymph nodes is considered to be metastatic disease. The definition
of just which lymph nodes are regional depends on the type of cancer. N0
means no lymph node involvement while N4 means extensive involvement. In
general more extensive involvement means some combination of more nodes
involved, greater enlargement of the involved nodes, and more distant (But
still regional) node involvement.

M: Metastasis

M is either M0 if there are no metastases or M1 if there are
metastases.

As with the other system, the exact definitions for T and N are different
for each different kind of cancer.

As you can see, the TNM system is more precise than the I through IV
system and certainly has a lot more categories. The two systems are
actually related. The I through IV groupings are actually defined using
the TNM system. For example, stage II non-small cell lung cancer means a
T1 or T2 primary tumor with N1 lymph node involvement, and no metastases
(M0).

Staging System Variations and Changes

There is no law of nature that all cancers are best classified into just four
prognostic groups. For many cancers four prognostic groups is not enough, so
the overall staging is further divided with classifications like IIa, and IIIb.
(A few cancers have fewer than four stage groupings.) You may find it natural
to assume that the differences in prognosis between sub-groups, like IIIa and
IIIb, is smaller than between major divisions like II and III, but this is not
necessarily the case. For instance in non-small cell lung cancer, the
difference between stage IIIa and stage IIIb is very important. People with
stage IIIa cancer have a chance of being cured with treatment which includes
surgery, whereas surgery generally does not help people with stage IIIb who
have a substantially worse prognosis. Again, you must find the specific stating
and prognostic information for your cancer to know what the staging means in
terms of prognosis.

For leukemias and other cancers which don't form solid tumors, the staging is
again different. Because there is not a localized primary tumor with distinct
metastasis to lymph nodes and other organs, the TNM system simply doesn't
apply. Often there are defined stages I through IV but if so it will depend on
various factors such as the blood count, extent of bone marrow involvement or
the presence or absence of symptoms.

Although the trend is towards standard terminology, some types of cancers use
staging systems with different nomenclatures. For example, prostate and colon
cancer are sometimes staged as A through D rather than I through IV. In these
cases, unfortunately there is more than one staging system in use at the same
time! Obviously you need to be aware of which staging system is being used in a
particular paper or reference, and which was used in your case. Usually, the
staging used will be referenced according to the originator of the paper - e.g.
the Duke staging system for colon cancer. Often you can figure out what
your stage was in the "other" system with specific information about the extent
of your cancer from your pathology and operative reports.

As if this weren't enough, new information and improvements in treatment
changes the prognosis or treatment of various subgroups, and as a result, the
staging system for individual cancers must be revised from time to time. If you
are relying on recent information, as you should be, then you will usually be
looking at research data based on the latest staging, but be alert for the
possibility that the staging just recently changed for your cancer so that some
relatively recent papers use the older system.

Perspective is Important!

It is important to know that while stages are an important guide to treatment
and prognosis, they are certainly not the whole story. There can be many
individual situations within these stage groupings. For instance, if a patient
with kidney cancer has only one metastasis and it can be removed surgically,
and it's been several years since he had his kidney out, the prognosis is much
better than if he had many metastases which appeared just after surgery to
remove the kidney. Sometimes the treatment depends on just where metastases are
located. There are, for instance, specialized methods for treating bone
metastases and brain metastases. If a new treatment becomes available, some
sub-group of patients within a certain stage may suddenly have a much better
prognosis. If you find such a treatment, then you have a much better prognosis!
Finally, it's important to keep in mind that there is considerable variation in
outcome for every type and stage of cancer. A prognosis associated with a
cancer stage is only a general guide, not an infallible prediction, a sentence,
or a guarantee. I highly recommend Stephen Jay Gould's The Median Isn't the Message to get a
healthy perspective on prognostic statistics.

Tumor Grading

Tumor grade refers to a measure of how abnormal cells from your tumor
appear under the microscope. This can refer to the appearance of the cells
or to the percentage that appear to be dividing. The higher the grade, the
more aggressive and fast growing the cancer. Tumors are typically
classified from least to most aggressive as grade I through IV.

The grade is much more important for some kinds of cancers than for others. For
most kinds, it is a somewhat secondary factor, but for a few kinds of cancers,
notably certain brain tumors, prostate cancer, and lymphomas, it is extremely
important. Again your doctor will know how your tumor was graded and how
important it is to your type of cancer. The grading will also be found on the
pathology report from your biopsy or surgery. For information on understanding
pathology reports, see Dr. Ed Uthman's "The Biopsy
Report"/P>

Other Prognostic Factors

The results of specific molecular tests on your cancer cells may play a
significant role in determining treatment and prognosis. For example, breast
cancer is often treated differently depending on whether the cancer cells are
found to be Estrogen Receptor Positive (ER+) or Negative (ER-). ER+ cells have
receptors for estrogen on their surface, and their growth often requires the
presence of estrogen. ER+ tumors are more affected by hormonal treatment and
tend to be less aggressive.

As usual, which tests are done depends on your type of cancer, and to some
extent which tests the doctor decided to order. You can find out what
additional tests were done by talking to your doctor, and by consulting your
pathology report.

I expect that over time, the use of specific molecular diagnostics will become
both more common, and more important. Eventually, therapies may be tailored
more according to the individual biochemical characteristics of the tumor and
patient, and less based on the crude measures of how far the cancer has spread
which we call staging.

posted by Jason Nert @ 4:54 PM 2 comments